Glossary

Organisations

Acción Católica (Catholic Action) – A movement organising the presence of Catholics in society. It included the HOAC, Catholic Action Workers’ Brotherhood, and the JOC, Christian Workers’ Youth.

Alianza Popular (Popular Alliance) – A right-wing political party founded in 1976 by seven Franco ministers and led by Manuel Fraga. In 1989, it became the Popular Party.

Centrales Nacional Sindicalistas (CNS, National Trade Union Centre) – Fascist, state-led vertical trade union.

Centro Superior de Información de la Defensa (CESID) – Spain’s Intelligence Agency between 1977 and 2002.

Coalición Democrática (CD, Democratic Coalition) – The name under which Alianza Popular and a number of other small right-wing parties stood in the 1979 elections.

Comisiones Obreras (CCOO, Workers’ Commissions) – Trade union organisations. First established as bodies democratically representing workers in struggle, it then became an organised trade union under the influence of the Communist Party, PCE. The first place where such a workers’ commission was set up was at La Camocha mine in Gijón in 1957.

Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA, Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights) – Catholic fascist party from before the Civil War.

Confederación Española de Organizaciones Empresariales (CEOE, Spanish Confederation of Business Organisations) – The main employers’ organisation.

Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT, National Confederation of Labour) – Anarcho-syndicalist trade union.

Confederación Sindical Unitaria de Trabajadores (CSUT, Confederation of Workers’ Unitarian Trade Unions) – Founded in 1976 as a split off from CCOO and dominated by the Maoist PTE.

Curas rojos – Red priests or worker priests were a movement of Catholic priests who went into the labour movement, becoming manual workers themselves. Many became involved in the illegal trade union movement.

EKIN (Engage) – Basque nationalist organisation set up in 1952 as a university study group in Bilbao. In 1956, it fused with EGI, but tensions between the two organisations led to the expulsion of the original Ekin leaders in 1958, who then went on to set up ETA.

ELA-STV (In Basque: Eusko Langileen Alkartasuna [ELA]; in Spanish: Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos [STV]) – Basque Workers’ Solidarity, Basque nationalist trade union.

Enlaces (Links) – Were representatives of the official fascist ‘trade unions’ in the factories. The fact that they were elected by the workers became an opening for illegal trade union work.

Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA, Basque Homeland and Liberty) – Basque pro-independence organisation set up in 1958/59 out of the student group Ekin. It embarked on a campaign of terrorist actions. It progressively moved to the left, declaring itself a socialist organisation. It suffered a series of left-wing splits over a period of time. In 2011 it announced “the final end of its armed activities.” In 2017, it disarmed itself and finally, in 2018, the organisation announced its dissolution.

Eusko Gaztedi Indarra (EGI, Basque Youth Force) – Youth wing of the Basque Nationalist Party.

Falange – Fascist party set up in 1933.

Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (FET y de las JONS, Traditionalist Spanish Falange and of the Unions of the National-Syndicalist Offensive) – Fascist party set up in 1937 when the Franco regime forced the fusion between the Falange and the Carlist Traditionalist Communion. The fused FET y de las JONS was the only legal political party under the Franco dictatorship.

Frente Revolucionario Antifascista y Patriota (FRAP, Revolutionary Anti-fascist Patriotic Front) – Far-left armed organisation linked to the Maoist PCE (m-l). Set up in 1973, the FRAP disbanded itself in 1978. In 1975, three members of the FRAP and two members of ETA were the last people to be executed by the Franco regime.

Friedrich Ebert Foundation (FEF) – German political foundation linked to the Social Democratic Party of Germany. It funnelled large amounts of money and logistical support to the leadership of the Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) as a way of undermining both the influence of the Communist Party and the Marxist left wing within the party.

Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación (GAL, Anti-terrorist Liberation Groups) – Active between 1983 and 1987, these were death squads set up and funded illegally by state officials during the PSOE government of Felipe González as part of the dirty war against ETA.

Grupos de Resistencia Antifascista Primero de Octubre (GRAPO, 1 October Antifascist Resistance Groups) – Far-left terrorist organisation set up in 1975 and linked to the Maoist PCE(r). Carried out a number of high-profile kidnappings in 1976 and 1977.

Guerrilleros de Cristo Rey (Warriors of Christ the King) – Paramilitary fascist terrorist organisation with close links to the state apparatus and the secret services, active during the 1970s in Spain.

Hermandad Obrera de Acción Católica (HOAC, Catholic Action Workers’ Brotherhood) – Founded in 1946, many of its members played an important role in the rebuilding of the workers’ movement in the underground. Some went on to form the Maoist ORT (Revolutionary Workers’ Organisation).

Herri Batasuna (HB, Popular Unity) – Basque pro-independence left-wing party founded in 1978 as a coalition of several political forces. Changed its name to Batasuna in 2001 and was outlawed by the Spanish tribunals in 2003 because of its alleged links to ETA.

Izquierda Unida (United Left) – A political coalition set up in 1986 by the Communist Party and several other left-wing organisations in the aftermath of the NATO membership referendum campaign.

Jurados – Under the Franco regime, companies with over fifty workers had to have a Jurado de Empresa, a body composed of the employer and elected workers’ representatives. Workers’ delegates to the Jurado were elected by the workers themselves.

Juventud Obrera Católica (JOC) – Young Catholic Workers.

Movimiento Nacional (National Movement) – Was the name given to the fascist political participation mechanism during the Franco dictatorship. It included the political party (FET y de las JONS), the vertical ‘trade union’ and all of the civil servants who had to take an oath of loyalty to the principles of the Movimiento. Also included were youth, women’s, cultural and other organisations.

Partido Comunista de España (PCE) – Spanish Communist Party.

Partido Nacionalista Vasco (PNV) – Basque Nationalist Party.

Partido Popular (PP, Peoples’ Party) – Right-wing political party created in 1989 as a continuation of Alianza Popular.

Partido Socialista del Interior (PSI, Socialist Party of the Interior) – Set up in 1967 under the leadership of Enrique Tierno Galván, its name reflected the fact that most of its members were based in Spain as opposed to the PSOE, which was based in exile. Defining itself as Marxist, it changed its name to Peoples’ Socialist Party in 1974. Stood in the 1977 general election as part of a coalition of smaller socialist parties, getting 4.4 per cent of the votes and six members of parliament. In 1978, it fused into the PSOE. Tierno Galván became the first democratically elected mayor of Madrid after the end of the dictatorship, a position he held until his death in 1986.

PSOE-Renovado (PSOE-Renovated) – The Twenty-Fifth Congress of the PSOE in Toulouse in 1972 led to a split between the previous leadership, with Rodolfo Llopis based in exile, and the new leadership of Felipe González, Nicolás Redondo and Pablo Castellano, based in the interior. Llopis rejected the result of the congress and set up his own PSOE-Histórico. For a while the PSOE-Historico and the PSOE-Renovado (led by Felipe González) fought for legitimacy until the latter was recognised by the Socialist International in 1974.

Requetés – Carlist militia on Franco’s side in Civil War.

Servicio Central de Documentación (SECED, Central Documentation Service) – Spanish intelligence agency between 1972 and 1977.

Sindicato Unitario (SU, Unitary Trade Union) – Founded at a clandestine congress in 1977 after splitting away from CCOO in 1976, the SU was linked to the Maoist party ORT. Particularly strong in Navarre, where it came first in the trade union elections of 1978 with thirteen per cent of the elected shop stewards.

Unión de Centro Democrático (UCD, Democratic Centre Union) – A centre-right political party founded in 1977 by former members of the Franco regime as well as liberal and social-democratic politicians. Won the first democratic general elections in 1977 and ruled the country with Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister until 1982. Its electoral defeat quickly led to the disintegration of the party with many of its leaders and most of its electorate moving over the Alianza Popular. Disbanded in 1983.

Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT, General Workers’ Union) – A socialist trade union.

Individuals

Alfonso XIII, King (1886-1941) – Was king of Spain from 1886 until he was deposed by the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931 when he fled the country. He supported the Francoist uprising in 1936, but when he finally crushed the Republic, Franco refused to restore the Monarchy. Before his death in 1941 he abdicated his claim to the vacant Spanish throne in favour of Juan, Count of Barcelona.

Areilza y Martínez-Rodas, José María (1909-1998) – Pre-Civil War reactionary monarchist. Took part in the fascist uprising in 1936, playing a role in the unification of the FET y de las JONS of which he became a national leader. He was a loyal functionary of the Franco regime, though he never abandoned his monarchist views. He only discovered his ‘democratic’ credentials in 1975. He became a minister in the Arias Navarro government, the first after the death of Franco and was billed to succeed him, but instead Adolfo Suarez was appointed. Never tried for his crimes.

Arias Navarro, Carlos (1908-1989) – Joined the Francoist uprising in 1936 and earned the nickname of ‘the Butcher of Malaga’ for his role as a prosecutor after the defeat of the Republic in signing thousands of death sentences. A high-ranking official in the Franco regime, he was appointed as prime minister after the assassination of Carrero Blanco in 1973. He resisted any political reforms after Franco’s death and was finally removed from his position in 1976. Never tried for his crimes and was instead rewarded with the titles of Marquis and Grande de España.

Armada Comyn, Alfonso (1920-2013) – Joined the Francoists during the Spanish Civil War and then fought with the Nazis on the Eastern Front as part of the Spanish volunteers of the Blue Division. He became an aide to Juan Carlos. As a military officer he was involved in the 23 February, 1981 military coup. In 1983 he was sentenced to thirty years in jail for his role in the coup, but pardoned in 1998 on health grounds.

Borbón (Count of Barcelona/son of Alfonso XIII), Juan de (1913-1993) – Son of Alfonso XIII who had been deposed by the proclamation of the Republic in 1931. He was foiled in his attempts to join the Francoist uprising in 1936, which he justified and supported. Disappointed at the fact that Franco did not restore the monarchy immediately, he continued to claim his right to the throne. His conflict with Franco was never about democracy, but rather about who should be the head of state. In 1969 Franco appointed his son Juan Carlos as his successor as head of state with the title of king leaving Juan de Borbón out. In 1977 he grudgingly accepted the fact that he was never going to be monarch.

Bosch, Jaime Milans del (1915-1997) – Military officer from an aristocratic background. He fought on Franco’s side during the civil war. He then joined the Blue Division of Spanish volunteers fighting with the Nazis on the Eastern Front in WWII. As a lieutenant general and commander of the Valencia military region he participated in the 1981 military coup. He was sentenced to twenty-six years imprisonment but pardoned after nine years on account of old age.

Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo (1926-2008) – Spanish capitalist during the Franco dictatorship. Elected to ‘parliament’ in 1974 as a representative of the chemical industry bosses. In 1975 he became a Minister of Commerce under Arias Navarro and then of Public Works with Adolfo Suárez. Founder and leading member of the UCD and part of its government between 1977 and 1982. He became prime minister after the 1981 coup and until the PSOE’s victory in the October 1982 election. He was rewarded for his services with the titles of Marquis and Grande de España.

Camacho, Marcelino (1918-2010) – Son of a railway worker, he joined the Communist Party and the UGT in 1935 at the age of seventeen. Fought on the Republican side during the Civil War. Spent several years in prisoner camps after the war and in exile. In 1957, returned to Madrid where he became a metalworker. Was elected as a workers’ representative in his factory and was one of the founding members of CCOO. Jailed in 1967 for his political and trade union activities, he was released in March 1972, only to be re-arrested as part of the leadership of CCOO in the famous 1001 court case. Sentenced to twenty years imprisonment, he was released as part of a Royal pardon at the end of 1975. Elected to the PCE central committee in 1976 and as general secretary of CCOO at its first General Assembly the same year. He led CCOO during the years of the AMI and the Pactos de la Moncloa. Elected to parliament for the PCE in 1977 and 1979, but he resigned in 1981 in protest at the approval of the Workers’ Statute (which the PCE had voted for) and then in 1982 he resigned from the leadership of the party in opposition to Santiago Carrillo. He led CCOO during the general strike of 1985. Removed from the leadership of CCOO and replaced by the right wing of the union, he later led the left opposition in the 1990s. Remained active in politics until his death in 2010.

Carrero Blanco, Luis (1904-1973) – Spanish Navy officer, he participated in the Rif colonial war in 1924-26. Fought with the fascist rebels during the Civil War. After the war he became chief of operations of the Navy and a close confidant to the dictator Franco. He became a minister in 1957, vice-president of the Council of Ministers in 1967 and prime minister in 1973. He was the anointed successor to the dictator, but he was killed in an ETA bomb attack on 20 December, 1973. His assassination was celebrated with champagne across the country.

Carrillo, Santiago (1915-2012) – Son of socialist leader Wenceslao Carrillo, he joined the socialist movement at a very early age. In 1932 he joined the executive committee of the Socialist Youth (JJSS) and became the editor of its newspaper Renovación. In 1933 was elected as general secretary of the Socialist Youth, which was on the left wing of the socialist movement. In 1934 he appealed for the Trotskyists to join the JJSS to “help bolshevise the Socialist Party”. Contrary to Trotsky’s advice, they rejected. That set the stage for the capture of the JJSS by the Stalinists, giving them a mass base. During the Civil War he joined the Communist Party. In exile in 1960 he became the general secretary of the party. In the 1960s he evolved from Stalinism towards Eurocommunist reformism. Played a key role in the betrayal which was the Spanish Transition, pushing the party to accept the Spanish flag, the Monarchy and the unity of Spain. Expelled from the PCE in 1985, he went on to form his own small party, PTE-UC, which finally joined the PSOE, though Carrillo stayed outside. When he died, his wake was attended by the King Juan Carlos I, a fitting tribute to the treacherous role he played.

Enrique y Tarancón, Cardinal Vicente (1907-1994) – Became a priest in 1929 and supported the Francoists during the Civil War. Appointed as bishop of Solsona in 1945, he slowly but surely climbed up in the structure of the Catholic Church, which was a pillar of the regime. In 1971, already a Cardinal, he became president of the Spanish Episcopal Conference. Under pressure from the ongoing revolutionary movement and the impact it was having in the ranks of the Church, he sought to distance the institution from the regime and appear as a defender of democracy.

Fernández Campo, Sabino (1918-2009) – Fought with the fascist militias of the Falange during the Civil War. As a military officer he occupied several second-rate positions in the Franco regime, advancing under the protection of Alfonso Armada. He replaced Armada as Secretary General of the Royal House, a position he occupied until 1990. He was given the title of Count and Grande de España.

Fernández-Miranda, Torcuato (1915-1980) – Fought with the fascists during the Spanish Civil War. Director General of University Education in the 1950s and tutor to the future King Juan Carlos I. High-ranking member of the Movimiento Nacional. He played a key role during the transition, as a member of the Council of the Kingdom, speaker of the Francoist Cortes and author of the Political Reform Law. He was rewarded with the titles of Duque, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece and Grande de España.

Ferrer Salat, Carlos (1931-1998) – Professional tennis player and businessman. A representative of the Catalan bourgeoisie, he presided over the Catalan bosses’ organisation Foment and founded the CEOE Spanish bosses’ organisation in 1977, over which he presided.

Fraga Iribarne, Manuel (1922-2012) – A grey Francoist politician, he climbed the regime’s hierarchy until becoming Minister of Information and Tourism in 1962. He authorised the execution of political prisoners. Drafted the regime’s Media Law. Minister of the Interior in 1975, he was directly in charge of repression against the workers’ and student demonstrations and strikes. He coined the phrase “the streets are mine”. He was responsible for the deadly repression of a workers’ assembly in Vitoria in March 1976 when police killed five workers. Founder of Alianza Popular with another six Franco ministers, of which he was the main leader until 1987. He was one of the ‘fathers of the 1978 Constitution’. President of the Galician regional government between 1989 and 2005. He was never tried for his crimes and was always proud of his role in the Franco regime. When he died, a bust of him was installed in the Spanish Senate building.

González, Felipe (1942-) – Joined the Socialist Youth in 1962 as a Law student in Seville. Rose through the ranks of the PSOE until he joined the National Executive in 1971. He fought for control of the party against the exiled leadership of Llopis, whom he defeated at the 1972 Congress in Toulouse. Elected as general secretary at the Congress of Suresnes in 1974. Though sometimes using left-wing rhetoric in order to make the party more attractive than the PCE, at the same time, he purged the Marxist left from the PSOE. Defeated in the 1979 Congress on his proposal that the PSOE should abandon Marxism, he managed to get it passed later in the same year in an Extraordinary Congress. Led the PSOE to victory in the 1982 election, becoming Prime Minister until 1996. Together with some initial reforms he implemented a policy of closing down of state-owned enterprises, leaving thousands unemployed and whole regions destroyed, campaigned for a Yes vote in the NATO membership referendum, introduced a pensions reform, a counter-reform of the labour law, etc. His government was involved in several corruption scandals as well as the creation of the GAL paramilitary death squads.

Guerra, Alfonso (1940-) – Joined the Socialist Youth in 1960 and was part of the same ambitious group of young PSOE members as Felipe Gonzalez, the Sevillans Clan. He was Gonzalez’s number two during the struggle to take control of the party and later on in government.

Gutiérrez Mellado, Manuel (1912-1995) – Joined the fascist Falange in 1935 and participated actively in the fascist uprising of 1936 as an artillery lieutenant. After the end of the Spanish Civil War he volunteered in the Blue Division, fighting with the Nazis on the Eastern Front. He was part of the Intelligence Section of the High Command, gathering information on Spanish exiles across Europe. He rose through the ranks of Franco’s army until he became Commander General in 1975 and lieutenant general and Chief of the Army General Staff in 1976 as a reward for his loyalty to the king and Suárez. He became Vice-president for Defence Affairs a few months later. He was Minister of Defence under Suárez between 1977 and 1979, he then became deputy prime minister, a position he held during the 1981 attempted coup. He was rewarded with the title of Marquis as well as being made an honorary Captain General of the Army.

Llopis, Rodolfo (1895-1983) – Joined the PSOE in 1917. General Secretary of the party in exile between 1947 and 1972 when he was removed by the ‘renewers’ at the Congress of Toulouse.

Luz Nájera, María (1956-77) – Madrid student. Killed by the police on 24 January, 1977, when participating in a demonstration protesting the killing of Arturo Ruiz by far-right gunmen the day before. Rodolfo Martin Villa was Minister of the Interior and Adolfo Suárez prime minister. No-one was ever tried for this crime.

Manzanas, Melitón (1906-1968) – High-ranking police officer under the Franco regime and a known torturer in San Sebastian where he was the head of the infamous Brigada Politico-Social, the political police division. Killed by ETA on 2 August, 1968. In 2011, during the Aznar PP government, he was posthumously awarded the medal of Civil Merit as a victim of terrorism.

Pujol, Jordi (1930-) – Bourgeois Catalan nationalist. Founded Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (CDC) (Democratic Convergence of Catalonia) in 1974. President of the Catalan government between 1980 and 2003.

Rato, Rodrigo (1949-) – Joined AP in 1977. Minister of Economy and Finances in the Aznar PP government in 1996-2000. Managing director of the IMF in 2004-07. President of Caja Madrid public savings bank in 2010, he then became the president of Bankia when it merged with another six savings banks. He was charged, together with another thirty Bankia directors, with accounting irregularities. After being found guilty of misuse of Bankia credit cards allocated to the bank’s directors, he was expelled from the PP (2014) and went to jail (2018). There are several other court cases pending against him.

Redondo, Nicolás (1927-) – Joined the UGT and the PSOE as a metalworker in 1945. Political secretary of the UGT since 1971. Led the UGT through the Transition. Elected to parliament for the PSOE in 1977, he resigned in 1987 in protest at the PSOE government social and economic policies after having voted against the budget. In 1988 he led the UGT to call a general strike against the PSOE government for the first time. Retired from the leadership of UGT in 1994.

Robles, Gil (1898-1980) – Reactionary Catholic politician during the Second Republic. Founded the pro-fascist coalition CEDA in 1933 (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas – Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right). Minister of War in the Lerroux government in 1935, used his position to advance the reactionary military officers who would carry the coup in 1936. Supported Franco during the Civil War. As a Monarchist, he came into conflict with the regime in the 1950s and participated in several opposition meetings. During the Transition he led a failed Christian Democratic Party.

Santiago y Díaz de Mendívil, General Fernando de (1910-1994) – As an army officer he joined the fascist uprising in 1936. Governor-general of Spanish Sahara (1971-74). Deputy prime minister for defence in the Arias Navarro government in 1975, he briefly became interim prime minister after Arias resigned in July 1976. Deputy prime minister for defence in the Suárez government, he resigned in protest at the Political Reform Law in the same year. He was part of different circles of Francoist generals who were unhappy with the move towards democracy. Days before the 1981 attempted coup he wrote an article in the fascist paper El Alcazar, which was a call to action.

Suárez, Adolfo (1932-2014) – Occupied several positions in the Franco regime, including provincial governor, provincial chief of the Movimiento, director-general of the state broadcasting agency and finally in 1975 he became general secretary of the Movimiento Nacional and minister in the Arias Navarro government after the death of Franco. Appointed prime minister by King Juan Carlos in July 1976, he won the 1977 general election as the head of his own party, UCD (Unión de Centro Democrático – Democratic Centre Union). Resigned in January 1981 on the eve of the attempted coup. In reward for his services he was made a Duque and later a Knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece. When he died in 2014, the former general secretary of the Francoist Movimiento Nacional was given a state funeral and had the Madrid airport named after him.

Tarradellas i Joan, Josep (1899-1988) – general secretary of the Catalan Republican Left in 1931, he was a minister in the Catalan government. At the end of the Civil War he went into exile in France and then Switzerland. In 1954 he was appointed to the purely symbolic position of Catalan president by nine members of the Catalan parliament in exile. To undermine the predominance of the left in Catalonia after the death of Franco, he was appointed as president of the restored Generalitat (Catalan government) in 1977 and presided over an all-party government until the first Catalan elections in 1980. For his services he was rewarded with the title of Marquis and on his death the Barcelona airport was named after him.

Tejero Molina, Antonio (1932-) – Joined the Civil Guard in 1951, where he became a Lieutenant Colonel in 1974. Known for his insubordination and far-right leanings, he was arrested in November 1978 for participating in Operación Galaxia, a conspiracy to carry out a coup. Released a few months later he continued his conspiratorial activities. Played a leading role in the 1981 attempted coup when he entered Congress at the head of a group of 200 civil guards. Arrested and then tried in 1983, he was sentenced to thirty years imprisonment but was released on parole in 1996.

Tierno Galván, Enrique (1918-1986) – Participant in the struggle against the Franco regime in the 1950s and 60s as a University Professor. In 1968 he founded the Partido Socialista del Interior (Interior Socialist Party) which in 1974 became the Partido Socialista Popular. Elected to parliament in 1977, he fused his PSP with the main PSOE in 1978 and was elected Madrid mayor in the 1979 municipal elections, a position he occupied until his death in 1986.